Chemistry flashcards
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22 decks
- Essential Ideas (Chemistry)Recall cards on the essential ideas of chemistry: chemistry in context (the central science; hypothesis, law, and theory; the macroscopic, microscopic, and symbolic domains); phases and classification of matter (the states of matter and plasma; mass versus weight; conservation of matter; pure substances, elements, compounds, and mixtures; atoms and molecules); physical and chemical properties and changes (extensive versus intensive properties; the NFPA hazard diamond); measurements (SI base units and metric prefixes; volume and density); measurement uncertainty (significant figures, rounding, accuracy versus precision); and the mathematical treatment of measurements (dimensional analysis, conversion factors, and temperature scales).
- Atoms, Molecules, and Ions (Chemistry)Recall cards on atoms, molecules, and ions: early ideas in atomic theory (Dalton's postulates; the laws of conservation of matter, definite proportions, and multiple proportions); the evolution of atomic theory (Thomson's cathode rays and the electron; Millikan's oil drop experiment; the plum pudding model; Rutherford's gold foil experiment and the nucleus; the proton, neutron, and isotopes); atomic structure and symbolism (the atomic mass unit; atomic number, mass number, and neutron count; isotope notation; ions, cations, and anions; average atomic mass); chemical formulas (molecular, empirical, and structural formulas; molecular models); the periodic table (the periodic law; periods and groups; metals, nonmetals, and metalloids; the element families); molecular and ionic compounds (ionic and covalent bonds; ion charges; monatomic and polyatomic ions); and chemical nomenclature (naming ionic compounds and the Stock system, binary molecular compounds, and acids).
- Composition of Substances and Solutions (Chemistry)Recall cards on the composition of substances and solutions: formula mass and the mole concept (formula versus molecular mass; the mole and Avogadro's number; molar mass and mass-mole-entity conversions); determining empirical and molecular formulas (percent composition; deriving an empirical formula from element masses or percent composition; the whole-number multiple linking empirical and molecular formulas); molarity (solution, solvent, solute, and aqueous solution; concentration; molarity and its unit; dilution and the dilution equation); and other units for solution concentrations (mass percentage, volume percentage, mass-volume percent, parts per million, and parts per billion).
- Stoichiometry of Chemical Reactions (Chemistry)Recall cards on the stoichiometry of chemical reactions: writing and balancing chemical equations (reactants, products, coefficients, subscripts, conservation of matter, state symbols, and molecular, complete-ionic, and net-ionic equations); classifying chemical reactions (precipitation and solubility rules; Arrhenius acids and bases, strong versus weak, and neutralization; oxidation-reduction, oxidation numbers, oxidizing and reducing agents, combustion, and single displacement); reaction stoichiometry (the mole ratio and mass-to-mass calculations); reaction yields (limiting and excess reactants, and theoretical, actual, and percent yield); and quantitative chemical analysis (titration, gravimetric analysis, and combustion analysis).
- Thermochemistry (Chemistry)Recall cards on thermochemistry: energy basics (energy, work, kinetic and potential energy, conservation of energy, thermal energy, temperature, heat, exothermic and endothermic processes, the calorie and joule, heat capacity, specific and molar heat capacity, and q = m c deltaT); calorimetry (calorimeters, system and surroundings, coffee-cup and bomb calorimeters, hand warmers and cold packs, and food energy); and enthalpy (internal energy, the first law of thermodynamics, pressure-volume work, state functions, enthalpy and enthalpy change, thermochemical equations, standard states, standard enthalpies of combustion and formation, and Hess's law).
- Electronic Structure and Periodic Properties (Chemistry)Recall cards on the electronic structure of atoms and periodic trends: electromagnetic energy (wavelength, frequency, the speed of light, blackbody radiation, quantization, photons, the photoelectric effect, line spectra, the Rydberg formula, and wave-particle duality); the Bohr model of hydrogen (stationary states, quantized orbital energies, ground and excited states, the Bohr radius, and ionization); the development of quantum theory (de Broglie wavelength, the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, wavefunctions and atomic orbitals, the four quantum numbers, the Pauli exclusion principle, and orbital shapes); electron configurations (the Aufbau principle, Hund's rule, subshell filling order, valence and core electrons, noble gas notation, ion configurations, and the periodic table blocks); and periodic variations (atomic and ionic radii, effective nuclear charge, ionization energy, electron affinity, and metallic character).
- Chemical Bonding and Molecular Geometry (Chemistry)Recall cards on chemical bonding and molecular shape: ionic bonding (ions, cations and anions, ionic bonds and the properties of ionic solids, cation and anion formation rules, and lattice arrangement); covalent bonding (shared electron pairs, bond length, the properties of covalent compounds, pure versus polar covalent bonds, and electronegativity and its periodic trends); Lewis symbols and structures (lone and bonding pairs, the octet rule and its exceptions, single, double, and triple bonds, and free radicals, electron-deficient, and hypervalent molecules); formal charges and resonance (the formal-charge formula, structure selection, and resonance forms and hybrids); the strengths of ionic and covalent bonds (bond energy, bond order, reaction enthalpy from bond energies, lattice energy, and the Born-Haber cycle); and molecular structure and polarity (VSEPR theory, the five electron-pair geometries and their bond angles, lone-pair effects, bond dipole moments, and molecular polarity).
- Advanced Theories of Covalent Bonding (Chemistry)Recall cards on advanced covalent bonding theory: valence bond theory (the overlap of half-filled atomic orbitals, orbital overlap and bond strength, the energy of bond formation and bond distance, and sigma and pi bonds in single, double, and triple bonds); hybrid atomic orbitals (hybridization and its relation to VSEPR electron-pair geometry, and the sp, sp2, sp3, sp3d, and sp3d2 hybrid sets with their geometries and bond angles); multiple bonds (the sigma-plus-pi description of double and triple bonds in ethene and acetylene, restricted rotation about double bonds, and delocalization in benzene); and molecular orbital theory (bonding and antibonding molecular orbitals from the linear combination of atomic orbitals, molecular orbital diagrams, bond order, paramagnetism and diamagnetism, the paramagnetism of oxygen, and s-p mixing in second-period diatomic molecules).
- Gases (Chemistry)Recall cards on the behavior of gases: gas pressure (its definition as force per area, its origin in molecular collisions, the pascal, atmosphere, torr, mm Hg, bar, and psi units and their conversions, barometers and manometers, and hydrostatic pressure); the simple gas laws (Amontons's/Gay-Lussac's, Charles's, Boyle's, and Avogadro's laws with their equations) and the ideal gas law PV = nRT with the gas constant, standard temperature and pressure, the standard molar volume, the combined gas law, and absolute zero; gas stoichiometry (gas density and molar mass from the ideal gas law, the law of combining volumes, Dalton's law of partial pressures, mole fraction, and collecting a gas over water); effusion and diffusion (mean free path, Graham's law, and uranium enrichment); the kinetic-molecular theory (its postulates, molecular kinetic energy, root-mean-square speed, and the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution); and non-ideal gas behavior (deviations at high pressure and low temperature, the compressibility factor, and the van der Waals equation).
- Liquids and Solids (Chemistry)Recall cards on the condensed phases of matter: intermolecular forces (the distinction from intramolecular forces, van der Waals forces, dispersion/London forces and polarizability, dipole-dipole attractions, and hydrogen bonding); the properties of liquids (viscosity, cohesion and adhesion, surface tension, and capillary action); phase transitions (vaporization and condensation, vapor pressure, boiling point, the Clausius-Clapeyron equation, melting and freezing, sublimation and deposition, and the associated enthalpies); phase diagrams (their axes and regions, the solid-liquid, liquid-gas, and solid-gas curves, the triple point, and the critical point); the solid state (crystalline versus amorphous solids and the four types of crystalline solid: ionic, metallic, covalent network, and molecular, plus crystal defects and doping); and lattice structures (the unit cell, simple cubic, body-centered cubic, and face-centered cubic structures with their coordination numbers and packing efficiencies, closest packing, tetrahedral and octahedral holes, the sodium chloride structure, and X-ray diffraction with the Bragg equation).
- Solutions and Colloids (Chemistry)Recall cards on solutions and colloids: the dissolution process (solute and solvent, the spontaneity and entropy of solution formation, ideal solutions, the three intermolecular attractions involved, and endothermic versus exothermic dissolving); electrolytes (strong, weak, and nonelectrolytes, dissociation, ion-dipole attraction, and covalent compounds that ionize by reacting with water); solubility (saturated, unsaturated, and supersaturated solutions, Henry's law for gases, miscibility, and the temperature dependence of solubility); colligative properties (mole fraction and molality, Raoult's law, vapor pressure lowering, boiling point elevation and freezing point depression with their constants, osmosis and osmotic pressure, and the van't Hoff factor); and colloids (the dispersed phase and dispersion medium, the Tyndall effect, sols, aerosols, emulsions, gels and foams, emulsifying agents, soaps and detergents, charged colloidal particles, the Cottrell precipitator, and gels).
- Kinetics (Chemistry)Recall cards on chemical kinetics: reaction rates (average, instantaneous, and initial rates, the sign convention, rates from the tangent to a concentration-versus-time curve, and stoichiometric rate relations); the factors that affect rates (chemical nature, physical state and surface area, temperature, concentration, and catalysts); rate laws (the rate constant, reaction order, the method of initial rates, and the units of k); integrated rate laws (the first-, second-, and zero-order equations, their linear plots, and their half-lives); collision theory (activation energy, the activated complex, and the Arrhenius equation with its linear form and plot); reaction mechanisms (elementary reactions, intermediates, molecularity, and the rate-determining step); and catalysis (lower-activation-energy pathways, homogeneous versus heterogeneous catalysts, and enzymes).
- Fundamental Equilibrium Concepts (Chemistry)Recall cards on the fundamentals of chemical equilibrium: reversible reactions and dynamic equilibrium (equal forward and reverse rates, constant concentrations, the double arrow); the reaction quotient Q and the equilibrium constant K (the concentration form Qc and the pressure form Qp, the law of mass action, what large and small K values mean, using Q versus K to predict reaction direction, the relation Kp = Kc(RT)^delta-n, and homogeneous versus heterogeneous equilibria with pure solids and liquids omitted); manipulating equilibrium constants for reversed, multiplied, and combined reactions; Le Chatelier's principle (how concentration, pressure-volume, and temperature changes shift an equilibrium, why a catalyst does not, and the Haber process and carbonated-drink examples); and equilibrium calculations with ICE tables, the quadratic formula, and the small-K approximation.
- Acid-Base Equilibria (Chemistry)Recall cards on aqueous acid-base equilibria: the Bronsted-Lowry model (proton donors and acceptors, conjugate acid-base pairs, amphiprotic species, and the autoionization of water with its ion-product constant Kw); the pH and pOH scales (their definitions, the 25 C relation pH + pOH = 14, and acidic, neutral, and basic ranges); relative acid and base strengths (strong versus weak, Ka and Kb, percent ionization, the Ka x Kb = Kw relation for a conjugate pair, the leveling effect, and molecular-structure trends in binary and oxyacids); salt hydrolysis and the acidity of hydrated metal ions; polyprotic acids and their successive ionization constants; buffers (composition, action, capacity, and the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation); and acid-base titrations (titration curves, equivalence and end points, and indicator choice).
- Equilibria of Other Reaction Classes (Chemistry)Recall cards on solubility and other equilibria beyond simple acid-base systems: precipitation and dissolution (the solubility product constant Ksp, molar solubility, saturated, unsaturated, and supersaturated solutions, the ion product Qsp and its comparison with Ksp to predict precipitation, the common ion effect, selective precipitation, and pH-controlled solubility); Lewis acids and bases (electron-pair donors and acceptors, coordinate covalent bonds, acid-base adducts, complex ions and their ligands, and the formation constant Kf); and coupled equilibria (shared species linking two equilibria, the product-of-K rule, acid-enhanced solubility of basic-anion salts, and complex-ion driven dissolution), with applications including ocean acidification of calcium carbonate and the fluoridation of tooth enamel.
- Thermodynamics (Chemistry)Recall cards on chemical thermodynamics: spontaneity (spontaneous and nonspontaneous processes, the independence of spontaneity from reaction speed, and the dispersal of matter and energy); entropy (the state function S, delta-S = q_rev/T, Boltzmann's S = k ln W and microstates, and how entropy varies with state of matter, phase change, temperature, and dissolution); the second and third laws (the entropy of the universe, delta-S_univ sign rules for spontaneity and equilibrium, the entropy change of the surroundings, and the zero entropy of a perfect crystal at 0 K); and Gibbs free energy (G = H - TS, delta-G = delta-H - T delta-S, the delta-G sign criterion, standard free energies of reaction and formation, delta-G = delta-G degree + RT ln Q, delta-G degree = -RT ln K, and the temperature dependence of spontaneity).
- Electrochemistry (Chemistry)Recall cards on electrochemistry: a review of redox chemistry (oxidation numbers and their rules, oxidants and reductants, and the half-reaction method for balancing redox equations); galvanic cells (half-cells, anode and cathode, salt bridges, active and inert electrodes, and cell notation); electrode and cell potentials (the volt, standard cell potential, the standard hydrogen electrode, tabulated standard reduction potentials, and predicting spontaneity); the links among potential, free energy, and equilibrium (delta-G = -nFE, Faraday's constant, the relationship of E-degree-cell to K, and the Nernst equation); batteries and fuel cells (primary and secondary cells, the dry, alkaline, NiCd, lithium-ion, and lead-acid batteries, and the hydrogen fuel cell); corrosion (the electrochemistry of rusting and methods of protection such as galvanization, passivation, and sacrificial anodes); and electrolysis (electrolytic cells, overpotential, the Downs and chlor-alkali processes, and the stoichiometry relating charge to amount of substance produced).
- Representative Metals, Metalloids, and Nonmetals (Chemistry)Recall cards on the descriptive chemistry of the representative elements: periodicity and the periodic behavior of the representative metals (alkali, alkaline earth, group 12, and the metals of groups 13 to 15, plus the inert pair effect and allotropes); the occurrence and preparation of the representative metals (electrolysis in the Downs and Hall-Heroult cells, and chemical reduction such as the Pidgeon process); the structure and properties of the six metalloids (boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony, and tellurium) and their oxides, halides, and silicates; the structure and properties of the nonmetals (carbon allotropes, phosphorus and sulfur allotropes, and periodic trends); hydrogen and its compounds (isotopes, preparation, ammonia and the Haber process, the hydrogen halides); carbonates and hydrogen carbonates; and the occurrence, preparation, and properties of nitrogen, phosphorus, oxygen (including ozone, oxides, peroxides, superoxides, and hydroxides), sulfur, the halogens, and the noble gases.
- Transition Metals and Coordination Chemistry (Chemistry)Recall cards on the transition metals and coordination chemistry: the properties of the transition metals and inner transition metals (lanthanides and actinides), their electron configurations, oxidation states, and periodic trends; the occurrence, extraction, and refining of transition metals (roasting, smelting, the blast furnace, steelmaking, copper extraction, and silver hydrometallurgy); the preparation and chemistry of transition metal halides, oxides, hydroxides, and carbonates; coordination compounds and complexes (ligands, denticity, chelates, coordination number and geometry, nomenclature, and the many kinds of isomerism); the biological and industrial roles of coordination compounds (hemoglobin, chlorophyll, cisplatin, EDTA, and catalysis); and crystal field theory, including octahedral, tetrahedral, and square planar d-orbital splitting, high-spin versus low-spin complexes, the spectrochemical series, and the origins of color and magnetism in coordination compounds.
- Organic Chemistry (Chemistry)Recall cards on organic chemistry: the hydrocarbons (alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, and aromatic compounds), their bonding, hybridization, reactions (substitution and addition), isomerism (constitutional and geometric), and IUPAC naming; the oxygen-containing functional groups including alcohols and ethers; the carbonyl compounds aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, and esters, their functional groups, nomenclature, oxidation and reduction relationships, and everyday examples; and the nitrogen-containing amines and amides, including amidation, peptide bonds, proteins, enzymes, and polyamides such as Kevlar.
- Nuclear Chemistry (Chemistry)Recall cards on nuclear chemistry: nuclear structure and stability (nucleons, atomic and mass numbers, isotopes, the strong force, mass defect and binding energy, the band of stability, and magic numbers); writing and balancing nuclear equations with alpha, beta, positron, and gamma particles; radioactive decay (alpha, beta, gamma, positron emission, and electron capture, half-life, first-order kinetics, and radiometric dating); transmutation and nuclear energy (particle accelerators, transuranium elements, fission, chain reactions, reactor design, and fusion); uses of radioisotopes (medical tracers, therapy, and smoke detectors); and the biological effects of radiation (ionizing versus nonionizing radiation, penetrating power and shielding, the units becquerel, curie, gray, rad, sievert, and rem, relative biological effectiveness, radon, dose limits, and detectors).
- Chemical ElementsLearn the periodic table - match symbols to element names